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GNDU Question Paper-2021
B.A 1
st
Semester
GEOGRAPHY
(Physical Geography-l: Geomorphology)
Time Allowed: Three Hours Max. Marks: 70
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Write about the place of physical geography within the discipline of geography.
2. Write about the Continental Drift Theory of Wegner.
SECTION-B
3. Explain the various earth movements.
4. Write about the various forms of folding and faulting and the landforms created due to
folding and faulting.
SECTION-C
5. Write in detail about the various types of rocks.
6. Define earthquake, earthquake waves and causes of earthquakes.
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SECTION-D
7. Explain in detail about the fluvial landscapes in detail.
8. Write a note on the Karst topography.
GNDU Answer Paper-2021
B.A 1
st
Semester
GEOGRAPHY
(Physical Geography-l: Geomorphology)
Time Allowed: Three Hours Max. Marks: 70
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Write about the place of physical geography within the discipline of geography.
Ans: Physical Geography: The Ground Beneath All Maps
One chilly morning in Himachal Pradesh, a group of geography students stood on the edge
of a vast valley, their notebooks flapping in the wind. Their professor pointed at the snow-
capped peaks beyond and said, “Before you understand people, borders, and nations—you
must first understand this.” He stomped gently on the ground. “This is physical geography. It
shapes everything.”
That moment says a lot about the role of physical geography within the broader discipline of
geography. It is not just a subfield—it is the bedrock, the essential first layer upon which all
human activity plays out. To truly grasp its place and importance, we must explore how it
connects land, life, and learning.
The Foundation of Geography
Geography is the study of Earth's surfaces, spaces, and relationships—between nature,
humans, and society. It is divided broadly into two main branches:
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• Physical Geography: Study of natural features and phenomena.
• Human Geography: Study of human activities and their relationship with space.
While human geography focuses on societies, settlements, and systems, physical geography
lays the foundation. It explores mountains and rivers, climates and soils, oceans and
glaciers. Without this base, human geography has nothing to build upon.
What Does Physical Geography Study?
Physical geography investigates:
• Landforms: Mountains, valleys, plateaus, deserts.
• Climate and Weather: Temperature, rainfall, wind patterns.
• Soils and Vegetation: Fertility, texture, flora.
• Hydrology: Rivers, lakes, groundwater, ocean currents.
• Biogeography: Distribution of plants and animals.
• Geomorphology: Evolution and shaping of Earth's surface.
Each topic helps geographers understand how Earth behaves naturally—and how humans
interact with it.
The Structural Backbone of Geography
Think of geography as a house. Physical geography is the foundation, floor, and walls. It
determines:
• Where humans can live (climate zones, availability of water)
• Where civilizations rise (river valleys, fertile lands)
• How transportation develops (mountain passes, coastlines)
• Why natural disasters strike (earthquakes, floods, droughts)
Without this understanding, planning cities, farming, or managing resources becomes
guesswork.
Historical Importance
When geography as a discipline emerged centuries ago, it began with physical geography.
• Ancient Greeks like Eratosthenes calculated the Earth's circumference.
• Explorers mapped coastlines and mountain chains.
• Early scholars studied wind, monsoons, and oceans to guide trade.
Human geography as a separate field grew much later—first came the land, then came the
people.
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Interdisciplinary Connections
Physical geography is deeply connected to:
• Geology (rocks and tectonics)
• Meteorology (weather science)
• Environmental Science (ecosystem and pollution studies)
• Agriculture (soil and climate requirements)
• Urban Planning (choosing safe, sustainable locations)
This interdisciplinary nature means physical geography acts as a bridge, helping geographers
collaborate with scientists, planners, and ecologists.
Story: The River That Changed a Village
In Punjab, near Rishabh's hometown, a small village once relied on a nearby river for crops,
festivals, and community life. Over a decade, erosion shifted the river's course. Crops failed.
Homes flooded. Eventually, the villagers relocated. A team of geographers came and studied
satellite images, soil types, and rainfall data. Their findings? The river’s shift was due to
upstream deforestation.
Here, physical geography explained human displacement. Without it, officials would only
see suffering—but not understand why.
Relevance in Today’s World
Physical geography is not limited to textbooks or maps. It affects daily life and global
decisions.
1. Climate Change
Understanding greenhouse gases, rising sea levels, and melting glaciers falls under physical
geography. Without it, climate policy lacks substance.
2. Natural Disaster Management
Earthquakes, tsunamis, and hurricanes are physical phenomena. Predicting them and
protecting people relies on studying Earth’s physical behavior.
3. Environmental Conservation
Physical geography informs where ecosystems are fragile, how to conserve biodiversity, and
how terrain affects flora and fauna.
4. Resource Distribution
Where oil, coal, fresh water, and minerals occur is a result of Earth's natural processes.
Managing these depends on physical geography.
Link with Human Geography
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Human geography may study population density, migration, or urban growth, but all are
influenced by physical geography:
• People tend to settle in plains and near rivers.
• Agricultural societies need fertile soil and seasonal rain.
• Trade routes follow natural passes and coastlines.
Thus, physical geography informs how humans live and move, making it central to
demographic studies, economic geography, and cultural landscapes.
In Academic Discipline
In geography curricula across schools and universities:
• Physical geography is usually taught first.
• It builds core knowledge—topography, climatology, biogeography.
• Advanced courses like GIS (Geographic Information Systems) rely heavily on physical
data—elevation models, soil maps, terrain modeling.
It is also the base for field studies, data collection, and environmental modeling—where
theory meets terrain.
Why Students Must Learn It
Understanding physical geography helps students:
• Interpret maps and satellite images
• Connect Earth’s processes with human impact
• Think spatially and critically about landscapes
• Solve real-world problems (like flood planning, urban sprawl)
Without it, students miss the why and how behind geography’s most visible elements.
Conclusion: The Pulse Beneath All Geography
Physical geography is not just a topic—it is geography’s heartbeat. It helps decode the
Earth’s story before humans entered the scene, and it continues to guide humanity’s
journey today.
From glaciers carving valleys to winds shaping rain, physical geography reminds us that
everything we build, believe, and become—starts with the land beneath our feet.
2. Write about the Continental Drift Theory of Wegner.
Ans: Introduction: A Puzzle That Didn't Fit
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Once upon a time, not too long ago in the grand scale of science, a German meteorologist
named Alfred Wegener looked at the world map and saw something strange — something
that most others ignored.
While others just saw continents, Wegener saw pieces of a giant puzzle. He thought to
himself, “Why do the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa fit together
so perfectly, almost like two pieces of a jigsaw?” That simple observation led to one of the
most revolutionary ideas in Earth science — the Continental Drift Theory.
Let’s now unfold the story of Wegener’s theory like a clear and enjoyable explanation so
that even the toughest examiner can read it with interest and a smile.
What Is the Continental Drift Theory?
The Continental Drift Theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It suggests that:
“The continents were once joined together in a single supercontinent and have drifted
apart over millions of years to their present positions.”
This theory was not about tiny movements but huge continental shifts over geological time.
Pangaea – The Mother Continent
Wegener believed that around 300 million years ago, all the continents were joined
together into one single massive landmass called Pangaea (from Greek words pan meaning
‘all’ and gaia meaning ‘earth’).
• Pangaea was surrounded by a single ocean called Panthalassa.
• Around 200 million years ago, Pangaea started breaking up into two major parts:
o Laurasia in the north
o Gondwana in the south
These two landmasses later broke up further into the continents we know today.
Evidences Supporting Wegener's Theory
Let’s now understand the proofs that Wegener gave to support his theory. These are not
boring facts but rather clues — just like in a detective story.
1. Fit of the Continents
As mentioned earlier, the coastlines of South America and Africa seem to fit together like
puzzle pieces. This isn’t just a coincidence — it’s a major clue.
2. Fossil Evidence
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Fossils of the same species were found on continents that are now far apart:
• The Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, was found both in South America and Africa.
• Glossopteris, a fern plant, was found in India, South America, Africa, and Australia.
How could these species have crossed vast oceans? They couldn’t. The continents must
have once been joined.
3. Rock and Mountain Correlation
• The Appalachian Mountains in North America match the Caledonian Mountains in
Scotland and Scandinavia.
• Rocks of the same age and type were found on different continents.
This suggests that the mountains and rocks formed when the continents were connected.
4. Climate Evidence
• Coal deposits found in cold places like Antarctica suggest that these places once had
tropical climates.
• Glacial deposits (evidence of glaciers) are found in India, Africa, and South America
— places that are now warm.
So, these regions must have drifted from colder to warmer areas or vice versa.
Why Was Wegener Criticized?
Now here comes the twist in the story.
Despite all this strong evidence, Wegener was not fully accepted by the scientific
community during his lifetime. Why?
Because Wegener could not explain the mechanism — how or why the continents moved.
He suggested that continents plowed through the ocean floor, but he didn’t have the
technology or proof to explain the force behind such movement.
Many scientists mocked him and called his theory “amateur” because he was a
meteorologist, not a geologist. Sadly, Wegener died in 1930 during an expedition to
Greenland, without seeing his theory accepted.
The Revival of Wegener’s Idea (After His Death)
After World War II, new technologies like sonar and ocean drilling brought amazing
discoveries:
• Scientists discovered mid-ocean ridges (huge underwater mountain chains).
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• They found that new crust was being formed at these ridges and old crust was being
pushed away — called seafloor spreading.
This confirmed that the Earth’s crust is divided into plates, and these plates move slowly
over a semi-liquid layer called the asthenosphere. This became the basis of the Plate
Tectonics Theory, which finally explained how continents drift.
So, Wegener was right after all — but he was simply ahead of his time.
A Short Story to Make It Clear
Let’s imagine the Earth as a giant chocolate cake with a solid top layer (crust). Now imagine
the top layer cracked into several big slices — these are the continents.
Now suppose the cake is warm inside and soft, like lava or custard. Over time, the cake's
surface (the plates) slowly slide on the soft, creamy layer below. Sometimes they bump into
each other, sometimes they drift apart.
That’s exactly what happened to Earth’s continents.
Why Is Wegener’s Theory Important Today?
Wegener’s idea is not just an old theory — it is the foundation of modern Earth science.
Today, thanks to Plate Tectonics (which grew from his idea), we can understand:
• Why earthquakes and volcanoes happen
• How mountains are formed
• Why tsunamis occur
• How continents will continue to drift — for example, Africa is slowly splitting apart!
Continents Still on the Move
Believe it or not, even today continents are moving, although very slowly — about as fast as
your fingernails grow (2 to 5 cm per year)!
In the next 100 million years, the world map will look completely different — maybe all the
continents will come back together again into another supercontinent, sometimes called
Pangaea Proxima.
Conclusion: A Visionary Ahead of His Time
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Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory was laughed at in his time, but now it’s honored
and taught in every school. His story is a perfect example of how one bold idea, no matter
how strange it seems, can shake the foundations of science.
Just like a seed that takes time to grow into a tree, Wegener’s theory needed the right time
and tools to bloom. And now, his legacy lives on in every geology book and every plate
tectonics lesson.
So next time you look at a world map, remember — it’s not fixed. It’s just a moment in
Earth’s moving story. And it all began with a curious scientist who looked at the continents
and saw more than just land — he saw movement, connection, and a grand puzzle waiting
to be solved.
SECTION-B
3. Explain the various earth movements.
Ans: A Journey Inside the Living Earth
Long ago, in a quiet village nestled between the hills and forests, a curious boy named Arjun
often sat by the river, wondering how the mountains were formed, why the ground
sometimes shook, and how the seasons changed so perfectly. One day, he asked his
grandfather, a retired geography teacher, “Dadaji, does the Earth really move? It seems still
to me!”
With a smile, his grandfather picked up a small globe and replied, “Ah, Arjun, the Earth may
look still, but it is always dancing. Let me take you on a journey through its graceful
movements.”
This is where our story of Earth movements begins.
What are Earth Movements?
The Earth is not just a static ball floating in space. It is a dynamic planet, constantly moving
— both internally and externally. These movements are known as Earth movements.
Broadly, Earth movements are classified into two major categories:
1. Endogenic (Internal) Movements
2. Exogenic (External) Movements
Let us explore each type in detail with examples, effects, and processes.
1. Endogenic Movements (Internal Forces)
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These movements happen beneath the Earth's surface due to internal heat and energy.
They often lead to major changes like the formation of mountains or earthquakes.
Causes of Endogenic Movements:
• Heat from the Earth's core.
• Pressure differences in Earth's layers.
• Radioactive decay creating energy.
Endogenic movements are further divided into two types:
A. Sudden Movements
These occur unexpectedly and cause destruction within seconds.
i. Earthquakes
• Caused when tectonic plates (huge pieces of Earth’s crust) rub, slide, or crash into
each other.
• The energy released travels in waves, shaking the ground.
• The point inside the Earth where the earthquake starts is called the focus.
• The point on the surface directly above it is called the epicenter.
Example: The 2001 Gujarat earthquake in India caused massive damage and loss of life.
ii. Volcanoes
• When molten rock (magma), gases, and ash escape from beneath the Earth’s surface
through cracks, it's called a volcanic eruption.
• Some volcanoes are active, some dormant, and others extinct.
Example: Mount Vesuvius buried the city of Pompeii in 79 A.D. — a tragic yet famous
example.
B. Slow Movements (Diastrophic Movements)
These occur over thousands or millions of years and result in the creation of various
landforms.
i. Folding
• When two tectonic plates collide, the Earth’s crust gets compressed and bends to
form folds.
• This process forms mountain ranges like the Himalayas.
• The upward part is called anticline, and the downward fold is called syncline.
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ii. Faulting
• When pressure builds up and the rocks break instead of bending, a fault is formed.
• This causes parts of the Earth's crust to move vertically or horizontally.
• Faulting creates features like block mountains and rift valleys.
Example: The Great Rift Valley in Africa is a result of faulting.
2. Exogenic Movements (External Forces)
These movements take place on the surface of the Earth due to natural agents like wind,
water, glaciers, and temperature.
Causes of Exogenic Movements:
• Weathering
• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
Let’s break this down:
A. Weathering – The Earth’s Slow Breakup
It is the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces due to:
• Physical weathering: Caused by temperature changes, freezing water, etc.
• Chemical weathering: Due to chemical reactions with rainwater or air.
• Biological weathering: Caused by plant roots, animals, or microbes.
Story Snippet:
Remember how Arjun saw tree roots breaking a stone wall near his home? That was
biological weathering in action!
B. Erosion and Transportation – Nature’s Sculptors
Erosion is the wearing away of rocks and soil by agents like:
• Rivers (forming valleys, gorges)
• Wind (forming sand dunes)
• Glaciers (forming U-shaped valleys)
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• Sea waves (forming cliffs and arches)
Once materials are eroded, they are transported to new places and deposited, creating new
landforms.
Example:
• Rivers carry sand and silt downstream and deposit them to form deltas, like the
Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.
Special Types of Earth Movements
Apart from the internal and external forces, the Earth also shows large-scale planetary
movements that affect climate, day, night, and seasons.
A. Rotation
• Earth spins on its axis from west to east.
• It takes 24 hours for one complete rotation.
• It causes day and night.
B. Revolution
• Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
• It takes 365¼ days to complete one round.
• It causes seasons — summer, winter, autumn, and spring.
Why Are These Earth Movements Important?
1. Shape the Earth: Mountains, valleys, plateaus, plains — all are shaped by Earth’s
movements.
2. Natural Resources: Volcanoes bring up minerals; rivers deposit fertile soil.
3. Human Settlements: Many civilizations flourished near rivers (exogenic forces) or on
fertile volcanic soil.
4. Disasters & Warnings: Earthquakes and volcanoes help us improve disaster
preparedness.
5. Climate and Agriculture: Rotation and revolution control sunlight and seasons,
crucial for farming.
Conclusion: The Earth Is Alive
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As Arjun listened, his eyes widened with wonder. “So the Earth is always moving, even if we
don’t feel it?”
His grandfather nodded, “Yes, and every mountain, valley, earthquake, and breeze tells a
story — the story of the Earth’s endless movement.”
From violent earthquakes to gentle river flows, from folding mountains to shifting sand
dunes, the Earth never rests. Understanding these movements not only helps us admire the
planet's beauty but also prepare for its power.
So, the next time you feel the ground beneath your feet, remember — it’s not as still as it
seems. It’s part of a grand, ongoing journey — the dance of Earth itself.
4. Write about the various forms of folding and faulting and the landforms created due to
folding and faulting.
Ans: A Different Start: The Earth’s Wrinkles
Have you ever looked at an old man’s face and noticed how the wrinkles tell a story? Some
are deep, some are shallow, some go straight, and others curve. The Earth, too, has wrinkles
— but they are much bigger, shaped by powerful underground forces. These "wrinkles" of
the Earth are what we call folds and faults. They have given us some of the most spectacular
landforms — from the mighty Himalayas to deep rift valleys. But how did they form? What
forces shaped them? Let’s explore these secrets in a way even your curious younger sibling
could understand.
Chapter 1: The Living Earth Beneath Our Feet
Though the Earth feels solid and unmoving, it's actually floating on moving plates. These
tectonic plates rest on a semi-liquid layer called the asthenosphere. These plates shift
slowly, like rafts on water. When they collide or move apart, the crust gets disturbed.
This disturbance doesn’t always result in earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Sometimes, the
earth’s crust bends gently or breaks violently. This is where the story of folding and faulting
begins.
Chapter 2: The Tale of Folding – When Rocks Bend
Let’s start with folding. Imagine a thick carpet on the floor. Now push both ends of the
carpet towards each other. What happens? It forms folds or waves. That’s exactly what
happens in the Earth’s crust when two tectonic plates press against each other.
➤ What is Folding?
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Folding is the bending of rock layers due to compressional forces. These forces push the
rocks horizontally from opposite directions, squeezing and bending them. It doesn’t happen
overnight — it takes millions of years.
Types of Folds
Just like paper can be folded in different ways, rock layers too can bend in various forms:
1. Anticline – A fold that forms an arch-like structure. The oldest rocks are found in the
center.
2. Syncline – A fold that forms a trough or U-shape. The youngest rocks lie in the
center.
3. Monocline – A single bend in otherwise horizontal layers, like a step.
4. Isoclinal Fold – Both limbs (sides) of the fold are parallel to each other.
5. Overturned Fold – One limb is pushed over the other.
6. Recumbent Fold – Both limbs lie almost horizontally due to extreme pressure.
Landforms Created by Folding
Now, what do these folds create on the surface?
1. Fold Mountains – When large-scale folding happens, it creates huge mountain
ranges.
Example: The Himalayas, the Alps, the Rockies.
These mountains are young, high, and rugged.
2. Valleys and Ridges – Synclines form valleys, while anticlines form ridges.
Example: The Valley of Kashmir is a synclinal valley between Himalayan ranges.
3. Dome Mountains – When folding happens due to an uplift from beneath, a dome is
formed.
Example: The Black Hills of South Dakota.
Chapter 3: Faulting – When Rocks Break
Now let’s talk about faulting. Imagine bending a stick. Bend it slowly and it curves (like a
fold). But if you apply too much pressure, it snaps. That’s what faulting is — breaking of the
Earth’s crust due to tension, compression, or shearing forces.
➤ What is Faulting?
Faulting occurs when rocks cannot bend anymore and instead break due to stress. Once the
rock breaks, one block may slide past, rise above, or sink below the other block. This
movement creates a fault.
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Types of Faults
1. Normal Fault – Due to tensional forces (pulling apart), one block drops down.
Common in divergent plate boundaries.
2. Reverse Fault – Due to compressional forces (pushing together), one block moves up
over the other.
Seen in convergent boundaries.
3. Thrust Fault – A type of reverse fault but with a low angle. It causes rocks to be
pushed over great distances.
4. Strike-Slip Fault (Lateral Fault) – Rocks slide past each other horizontally due to
shearing forces.
Example: San Andreas Fault in California.
5. Horst and Graben – A horst is a raised block between two normal faults; a graben is
a sunken block.
Example: The Rhine Valley in Europe.
Chapter 4: Landforms Due to Faulting
Faulting is not just about earthquakes. It reshapes landscapes dramatically.
1. Rift Valleys (Grabens)
Formed when a block of land sinks between two parallel faults due to tension.
Example: The Great Rift Valley in Africa, Narmada and Tapi valleys in India.
2. Block Mountains (Horsts)
These are uplifted blocks between two faults.
Example: The Vosges in France, Satpura ranges in India.
3. Fault Scarps
A steep slope or cliff formed due to vertical movement along a fault.
Often seen after earthquakes.
4. Escarpments
Long cliffs formed by faulting or erosion.
Example: The Western Ghats of India.
A Quick Story: The Battle of Two Hills
Long ago, two ancient hills named Kanti and Deva stood beside a peaceful valley. One day,
the ground beneath them began to rumble. Kanti, tired of standing still for centuries,
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wanted to rise high above and touch the sky. Deva, calm and gentle, decided to go down,
making room for rivers to flow. The Earth split between them — Kanti became a horst, rising
tall and proud, while Deva became a graben, sinking to form a deep rift valley. This was the
result of faulting.
Chapter 5: Folding vs Faulting – What’s the Difference?
Let’s clear up the confusion with a simple comparison:
Feature
Folding
Faulting
Process
Bending of rocks
Breaking of rocks
Force
Compression
Compression, tension, or shearing
Time
Takes millions of years
Can happen suddenly
Results In
Fold mountains, valleys
Rift valleys, block mountains
Movement
Slow and continuous
Sudden, can cause earthquakes
Conclusion: Why Should We Care?
Understanding folding and faulting helps us in many ways:
• Predicting earthquakes: Fault zones are often earthquake-prone.
• Finding natural resources: Many oil and mineral deposits lie in folded regions.
• Understanding Earth’s history: Folds and faults are pages from Earth’s past — they
tell us how continents moved and how mountains formed.
Final Thoughts
So next time you look at a mountain, a deep valley, or a steep cliff, remember — these are
not just beautiful sights. They are the result of millions of years of slow bending or sudden
breaking beneath our feet. The Earth is a silent storyteller, and folding and faulting are its
favorite tools to shape the chapters of its history.
SECTION-C
5. Write in detail about the various types of rocks.
Ans: Introduction: A Journey into the Heart of the Earth
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Imagine this: You're a curious young explorer named Aanya, standing at the edge of a valley
after a rainstorm. As you pick up a shiny black stone and turn it in your hand, you begin to
wonder — “Where did this come from?” That single question leads you on a magical journey
deep into the Earth’s crust, where fire, pressure, and time shape the very building blocks of
our planet — rocks.
Rocks are not just stones lying around. They are the memory of Earth, holding stories that
are millions and even billions of years old. From the peaks of the Himalayas to the sand
under your feet at the beach — everything is made up of rocks.
Let’s dive deep into the three major types of rocks and their sub-types, their formation
processes, examples, and characteristics, in the simplest and most enjoyable way.
1. Igneous Rocks – The Fire-Born Rocks
Origin: The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, which means fire.
These are the first type of rocks formed on Earth — born directly from molten lava or
magma. When the hot, liquid material from inside the Earth cools down, it solidifies to form
igneous rocks.
Two Sub-Types:
(a) Intrusive (Plutonic) Igneous Rocks
• These rocks form beneath the Earth's surface.
• Magma cools slowly underground, giving crystals time to grow bigger.
• Texture: Coarse-grained
• Examples: Granite, Diorite, Gabbro
Example Explained: Granite is a common kitchen countertop material. It cools slowly
inside the Earth and has large, visible crystals of quartz and feldspar.
(b) Extrusive (Volcanic) Igneous Rocks
• Form on the Earth’s surface when lava erupts from a volcano and cools quickly.
• The rapid cooling doesn’t allow crystals to grow large.
• Texture: Fine-grained or glassy
• Examples: Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice
Example Explained: Basalt is the dark, hard rock that forms much of the ocean floor.
Pumice is so light (full of gas bubbles) that it can float on water!
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks:
• Made of crystals
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• Very hard and durable
• Do not have layers or fossils
• Found in volcanic regions or deep underground
2. Sedimentary Rocks – The Storytellers of Earth
Let’s now follow Aanya as she sits by a riverbank. Over time, she notices that small particles
of soil and sand are being carried by the flowing water and deposited downstream. These
small particles, when pressed together for millions of years, form sedimentary rocks.
Formation: These rocks are made by the accumulation and compression of sediments —
small fragments of other rocks, minerals, or remains of plants and animals.
Three Sub-Types:
(a) Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
• Made from fragments (clasts) of pre-existing rocks.
• Carried by wind, water, or ice, and then compacted and cemented.
• Examples: Sandstone, Shale, Conglomerate
Example Explained: Sandstone is formed from compressed sand and is common in
deserts. Shale is made from clay and splits into thin layers.
(b) Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Formed when minerals dissolve in water and then precipitate.
• Often found in salty or dry lake beds.
• Examples: Limestone (can also be organic), Rock salt, Gypsum
Example Explained: Rock Salt forms when salty water evaporates and leaves behind salt
deposits — just like how salt remains after seawater dries up.
(c) Organic Sedimentary Rocks
• Made from the remains of plants and animals.
• Rich in carbon and often linked to fossil fuels.
• Examples: Coal, Some types of Limestone
Example Explained: Coal is formed from ancient plant remains buried deep under
swamps, compressed over millions of years.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks:
• Often have layers (called strata)
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• May contain fossils
• Softer than igneous or metamorphic rocks
• Formed in riverbeds, lakes, seas, or deserts
3. Metamorphic Rocks – The Rocks That Transformed
Now picture this: Aanya has hiked deep into the mountains. She stumbles upon a beautiful
rock with wavy layers and shiny crystals. This is not just any rock. It is a metamorphic rock —
a rock that has changed its form due to heat and pressure beneath the Earth’s surface.
Formation: These rocks are formed from existing rocks (igneous or sedimentary) that are
changed by high temperature and pressure, without melting.
Two Types of Metamorphism:
(a) Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Have layers or bands due to pressure applied in one direction.
• Examples: Slate (from shale), Schist, Gneiss (from granite)
Example Explained: Slate is used in blackboards and roofing. It comes from compressed
shale and has flat layers.
(b) Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• No layers. Pressure is equal in all directions or due to heat only.
• Examples: Marble (from limestone), Quartzite (from sandstone)
Example Explained: Marble is used in sculptures and temples. It forms when limestone
is heated and recrystallized.
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks:
• Often hard and shiny
• May have banded or crystalline texture
• No fossils
• Found in mountain regions or deep underground
Summary Chart (Comparison)
Type
How They Form
Texture
Examples
Features
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Igneous
From molten
magma/lava
Crystalline
Granite, Basalt,
Obsidian
Hard, no layers or
fossils
Sedimentary
From sediments
Layered/Clastic
Sandstone,
Limestone, Coal
May have fossils,
soft, formed in
water
Metamorphic
From changed
rocks
Layered or
Crystalline
Marble, Slate,
Gneiss
Hard, shiny, no
fossils
A Real-Life Story to Understand All Three
Let’s go back to Aanya's journey one last time. She picks up a granite rock at the mountain’s
base — an igneous rock. Over millions of years, weather and water break this granite into
small pieces. These are washed into a river and settle into layers — over time, they become
sandstone, a sedimentary rock.
Later, due to tectonic movements, this sandstone is pushed deep into the Earth. Heat and
pressure change it into quartzite, a metamorphic rock. This one rock has lived three lives —
just like a character in a magical story.
Conclusion
Rocks are not just inanimate pieces of Earth. They are storytellers. Each rock — whether
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic — tells us about Earth's inner forces, its past
climates, volcanic eruptions, ancient seas, and the life that once existed.
Understanding rocks is like reading chapters of Earth’s autobiography written in stone.
So, the next time you see a rock, don't just toss it away. Ask yourself:
"Are you fire-born, water-made, or pressure-changed?"
Because now, like Aanya, you know the story behind every stone.
6. Define earthquake, earthquake waves and causes of earthquakes.
Ans: A Strange Night in the Village of DhartiGaon
One peaceful night in a small village called DhartiGaon, children were sleeping, elders were
telling stories under the moonlight, and everything was as calm as ever. But suddenly, at
midnight, the earth beneath everyone started shaking violently. The trees swayed without
wind, the houses trembled, utensils fell, and people ran out in panic, shouting “Bhukamp!
Bhukamp!” (Earthquake! Earthquake!).
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After the shaking stopped, an old school teacher, Master Ji, gathered the frightened
villagers and said, “This was an earthquake, my dear ones. Let me explain what just shook
our lives.”
And with that, Master Ji began to teach everyone what an earthquake truly is…
What is an Earthquake? – Definition Made Easy
An earthquake is the sudden shaking or vibration of the Earth's surface caused by the
release of energy from beneath the Earth's crust. This energy travels through the Earth in
the form of waves and causes the ground to shake.
It usually happens when rocks inside the Earth crack or slip due to pressure and stress built
up over time. These cracks or faults are often found along the boundaries of tectonic plates.
Scientific Definition:
An earthquake is a sudden and rapid movement of the Earth's crust, caused by the release
of energy in the form of seismic waves, usually due to movements along a fault line.
Imagine two huge blocks of rock pressing against each other. They don’t move because of
friction, but when the pressure becomes too much, they suddenly slip. That slip is what
causes an earthquake.
What are Earthquake Waves? – The Invisible Force
Master Ji pointed towards the nearby pond. He threw a stone in it and said, “Look at the
ripples. That’s how earthquake waves move through the Earth.”
Earthquake waves, also called seismic waves, are the waves of energy that travel through
the Earth when an earthquake occurs. These waves are responsible for the shaking we feel
during an earthquake.
There are three main types of earthquake waves:
1. Primary Waves (P-Waves)
• Also called compressional or longitudinal waves.
• These are the fastest seismic waves.
• They are the first to be recorded on a seismograph.
• They move through solids, liquids, and gases.
• The movement is like a slinky – they compress and expand the material in the
direction the wave is moving.
Think of it like this: If you push one end of a spring, the compression travels along its length
— that’s how P-waves move.
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2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves)
• Also called shear or transverse waves.
• They are slower than P-waves.
• They only travel through solids.
• The movement is up and down or side to side, like shaking a rope.
Imagine a rope tied to a wall. If you shake one end up and down, waves will travel through it
— this is how S-waves move.
3. Surface Waves
• These travel along the Earth’s surface.
• They are slower than P and S-waves.
• But they cause the most destruction, especially to buildings and roads.
• They produce a rolling or swaying motion.
Think of the ground as a carpet. If someone pulls the carpet from one side, everything on it
will shake — this is the effect of surface waves.
Epicenter and Focus – The Earthquake’s Origin
• Focus (Hypocenter): The exact point inside the Earth where the earthquake starts.
• Epicenter: The point directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface.
The closer you are to the epicenter, the stronger the shaking will feel.
What Causes Earthquakes? – Nature’s Deep Secrets
Master Ji then drew circles in the dirt, showing how the Earth’s crust is divided into large
pieces called tectonic plates.
These plates are always moving slowly, floating on the semi-liquid layer of the mantle.
When they collide, slide, or pull apart, the stored energy in the rocks is suddenly released,
causing an earthquake.
Let’s understand the major causes of earthquakes:
1. Tectonic Movements (Most Common Cause)
This is the main cause of earthquakes and happens due to the movement of tectonic plates.
There are 3 main types of plate boundaries:
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• Convergent Boundary – Plates collide (e.g., Himalayas)
• Divergent Boundary – Plates move apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
• Transform Boundary – Plates slide past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault)
When the stress at the boundary becomes too much, the rocks break or slip, releasing
energy and causing earthquakes.
2. Volcanic Activity
Earthquakes often occur in volcanic areas. These are called volcanic earthquakes.
• When magma moves inside the Earth, it puts pressure on the surrounding rocks.
• If this pressure causes the rocks to break, it can result in an earthquake.
• Such earthquakes are usually localized but can be strong if the volcano erupts.
3. Human Activities (Induced Earthquakes)
Sometimes, human actions can cause earthquakes. These are called induced or man-made
earthquakes.
Some examples include:
• Mining explosions
• Reservoir-induced seismicity (e.g., when large dams are built)
• Oil and gas extraction
• Geothermal energy drilling
Although usually minor, these quakes can sometimes be damaging, especially if near
populated areas.
4. Faulting and Crustal Deformation
The Earth’s crust is full of fault lines — cracks where two blocks of land can move relative to
each other.
• When movement happens along these faults, earthquakes occur.
• Example: The Himalayan Fault System is responsible for many earthquakes in
Northern India.
5. Collapse Earthquakes
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These are small earthquakes caused by underground cave-ins or mining operations.
Though they don’t cause widespread damage, they are common in mining areas and can be
deadly.
A Second Story – The Legend of the Sleeping Dragon
In Japanese folklore, people believed that a giant dragon lived under the Earth. When it
turned in its sleep, the ground above would shake — an earthquake!
Today, we know it’s not a dragon but tectonic plates. Still, such stories helped ancient
people explain what they could not understand. Science has now given us deeper insight
into these events.
How Are Earthquakes Measured?
To measure the strength of an earthquake, scientists use tools like:
• Seismograph – Records the shaking.
• Richter Scale – Measures the magnitude (strength) of the earthquake.
• Mercalli Scale – Measures the intensity (damage caused).
For example, an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 is much more powerful than one of 5.0 – not
just by 2 points but about 100 times more energy!
Can We Predict Earthquakes?
Sadly, earthquakes cannot be predicted accurately — not yet. Scientists can only study risk
zones and prepare people.
That’s why earthquake-resistant buildings, early warning systems, and disaster training are
so important.
Conclusion – Knowledge is Protection
As Master Ji finished, the villagers began to feel less afraid. They now understood that
earthquakes are not magic or curses, but natural events caused by movements inside our
Earth.
They learned:
• What an earthquake is,
• How seismic waves travel,
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• What causes these earth-shaking events,
• And how science helps us understand and stay safe.
So, whenever the earth shakes again, remember — it’s just our planet stretching, cracking,
and shifting as it has done for millions of years.
Understanding earthquakes isn’t just about learning for exams — it’s about preparing for
life. And as Master Ji said:
“When you know the reason behind a storm, you no longer fear it — you face it with
wisdom.”
SECTION-D
7. Explain in detail about the fluvial landscapes in detail.
Ans: Fluvial Landscapes: Earth's Canvas Painted by Rivers
In the heart of Chhattisgarh, under a canopy of dense sal trees, an old farmer named Devan
would sit on a rock beside the winding river Arpa. "This river isn’t just water," he told his
grandson one morning, "It’s an artist—carving, shaping, sketching this land. Look around…
every hill, every curve is a brushstroke." And indeed, the river had sculpted the entire valley
over centuries, its flow like slow-moving poetry in stone.
Welcome to the fascinating world of fluvial landscapes—landforms created and shaped by
rivers and their associated processes. These landscapes are not static; they evolve
constantly, reflecting the dynamic interaction between water, rock, sediment, and time.
Whether in quiet river valleys or dramatic gorges, fluvial processes are powerful tools that
continuously shape Earth’s surface.
What Are Fluvial Landscapes?
Fluvial landscapes are landforms and features produced primarily by the action of running
water in the form of rivers and streams. “Fluvial” comes from the Latin word fluvius,
meaning river. Unlike glaciers or wind, rivers act persistently and patiently, transforming
landscapes by erosion, transportation, and deposition.
These processes work in tandem to:
• Carve valleys
• Build floodplains
• Cut gorges
• Lay down fertile sediments
• Create deltas
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Essentially, fluvial landscapes are expressions of the river’s energy across different terrains.
The Three Main Fluvial Processes
To understand fluvial landforms, it’s vital to know the mechanisms behind them:
1. Erosion
Rivers erode the landscape through:
• Hydraulic action: Force of water dislodging particles
• Abrasion: Sediments scraping the riverbed
• Attrition: Rocks colliding and breaking
• Solution: Water dissolving soluble minerals
Erosion is most intense in a river’s upper course where gradients are steep, and the flow is
energetic.
2. Transportation
Rivers carry sediments in various forms:
• Traction: Large rocks rolled along the bed
• Saltation: Pebbles bouncing like popcorn
• Suspension: Fine particles floating in water
• Solution: Dissolved minerals carried invisibly
These materials move downstream, changing landscapes far from their origin.
3. Deposition
When river energy reduces (often in the lower course), it drops sediments, forming new
landforms. Deposition builds floodplains, deltas, and levees, enriching soil and making river
valleys ideal for agriculture.
Landforms Across the River Course
A river typically has three stages—upper, middle, and lower course. Each stage showcases
unique fluvial landforms:
Upper Course: Erosion Dominates
This zone is where rivers are young and energetic, cutting deep into the land.
1. V-shaped Valleys
• Carved by vertical erosion
• Steep sides, narrow bottoms
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• Found in mountainous areas
2. Interlocking Spurs
• Ridges of land that the river winds around
• Showcases resistance of hard rock
3. Waterfalls and Rapids
• Occur where hard rock overlays soft rock
• Example: Jog Falls in Karnataka
• As soft rock erodes faster, dramatic drops form
Middle Course: Transportation Takes Over
Here, rivers gain volume and start meandering through gentler terrain.
1. Meanders
• Curving bends caused by lateral erosion and deposition
• River flows faster on the outer bend (erosion) and slower on the inner bend
(deposition)
2. Ox-bow Lakes
• Formed when meanders are cut off from the main channel
• Crescent-shaped lakes are left behind
3. Floodplains
• Flat areas beside rivers inundated during floods
• Sediment deposits make them fertile—think of the Indo-Gangetic Plains
Lower Course: Deposition Dominates
The river is mature, wide, and slow, focused on laying down sediment.
1. Levees
• Raised banks built naturally from deposited sediments during floods
2. Deltas
• Where the river meets the sea or a lake
• Deposition splits the river into distributaries
• Famous examples: Sundarbans Delta (Ganga-Brahmaputra) — the world’s largest
3. Estuaries
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• Tidal mouths of rivers with brackish water
• Less sediment deposition than deltas
Story: The Disappearing Meander
In Bihar, a river named Kamla used to curl gently beside a village. One year, after heavy
monsoons, it changed course overnight, swallowing farmland and leaving behind a stagnant
ox-bow lake. The villagers were devastated, but over time, the lake became a sanctuary for
migratory birds and fishing. Geography had shifted their lives, but also given them new
opportunities.
This story is a reminder that fluvial landscapes aren’t just scientific—they’re social and
emotional terrains, constantly influencing human destiny.
Human Interaction with Fluvial Landscapes
People have always depended on rivers:
• Settlements: Major civilizations—Indus, Nile, Tigris—arose beside rivers
• Agriculture: Fertile floodplains sustain food production
• Transport and Trade: Rivers like the Brahmaputra and Ganga are vital commercial
arteries
• Risks: Floods, bank erosion, and river shifting challenge communities
With dams, embankments, and river-cleaning projects, humans modify fluvial systems,
sometimes wisely, sometimes recklessly.
Importance in Geography
Studying fluvial landscapes helps us:
• Predict and manage floods
• Plan sustainable land use
• Understand erosion patterns and soil fertility
• Explore river ecosystems and biodiversity
• Preserve geological heritage
It’s essential for environmental planning, urban development, and ecological protection.
Final Reflection
Fluvial landscapes are like living maps—drawn not with pencils, but with flowing water over
centuries. They carry stories of change, connection, and creation. From the roaring
waterfalls of Meghalaya to the gentle meanders of the Krishna River, every twist and turn
reflects Earth’s dynamic pulse.
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As Devan told his grandson, “If you want to know a place, don’t just read its history—follow
its river. It will show you everything.” And truly, the study of fluvial landscapes gives us both
a geographer’s lens and a storyteller’s heart.
8. Write a note on the Karst topography.
Ans: Karst Topography: Nature’s Secret Labyrinth Beneath Our Feet
Long ago, in the village of Pahalgam in Kashmir, a curious boy named Irfan stumbled upon a
hole in the ground while chasing his sheep. It wasn’t an ordinary hole. As he peered into the
darkness, cool air rose and strange echoes bounced back. Years later, geologists would
discover that Irfan had found the entrance to a limestone cave system, carved silently over
millennia—a masterpiece of karst topography. That mysterious realm below his village, it
turned out, was as intricate and beautiful as the stars above.
Now, let’s take you on a journey through the world of karst topography—a land where
rivers disappear underground, where caves hold ancient secrets, and where landscapes
whisper the quiet tales of chemical erosion.
What Is Karst Topography?
Karst topography refers to a unique landscape formed primarily through the chemical
weathering of soluble rocks, most commonly limestone, but also dolomite and gypsum.
The word “karst” originates from a region in Slovenia where such landforms were first
studied extensively. These terrains are shaped not by rivers carving valleys or glaciers
scouring paths—but by the dissolution of rock by water, creating mysterious caves,
sinkholes, disappearing rivers, and underground drainage systems.
The Science Behind the Magic
The secret ingredient in karst formation is carbonic acid, formed when rainwater absorbs
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil. This slightly acidic water slowly dissolves
calcium carbonate, the key component of limestone.
Here’s how it unfolds:
• Rainwater + CO₂ → Weak carbonic acid
• Carbonic acid + Limestone (CaCO₃) → Calcium bicarbonate (soluble)
• Over centuries, this reaction eats away at the rock—forming voids, tunnels, and pits
Unlike surface erosion, this chemical weathering happens below ground, making karst
landscapes look deceptively plain above, while hiding vast networks beneath.
Key Features of Karst Topography
Let’s explore the most striking features found in karst regions, each formed by this slow
underground sculpting:
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1. Sinkholes (Dolines)
• Round depressions formed when the roof of a cave collapses
• Can be small puddle-like basins or enormous chasms
• Found extensively in places like Florida (USA) and Meghalaya (India)
2. Caves and Caverns
• Hollow spaces within the Earth, often rich in stalactites and stalagmites
• Examples: Ajanta Caves (India), Mammoth Cave (USA)
3. Stalactites and Stalagmites
• Formed by dripping water loaded with dissolved calcium
• Stalactites hang from ceilings, Stalagmites rise from the floor
• When they meet, they form pillars called columns
4. Underground Streams and Disappearing Rivers
• Surface rivers that vanish into sinkholes, flowing underground before re-emerging
• Creates complex underground drainage systems
5. Karst Valleys and Poljes
• Polje: A large flat-floored depression formed by collapse and erosion
• These valleys are often fertile and agriculturally important
Where Can You Find Karst Topography?
Karst isn’t rare—it’s found across the globe in varied forms:
Region
Notable Karst Features
Slovenia
Origin of the term “karst”
China
Guilin limestone towers and caves
India
Meghalaya caves, Ajanta-Ellora region
USA
Mammoth Cave, sinkholes in Florida
Croatia
The Dinaric Alps, rich in caves and poljes
These regions showcase the power and patience of nature’s underground sculptors.
A Short Tale: The Vanishing River
In the rocky landscape of Croatia, a river named Trebišnjica flowed for centuries across a
lush valley. But one spring morning, it disappeared—literally. Locals were baffled. Scientists
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later discovered it had sunk into a network of underground karst tunnels due to heavy
erosion.
The river didn’t die—it simply went undercover. Today, it still resurfaces downstream, like a
magician reappearing after a vanishing act. This tale emphasizes the unpredictability and
depth of karst landscapes.
Human Challenges and Interactions
While fascinating, karst topography can pose serious challenges:
• Sinkholes can damage infrastructure and swallow buildings
• Pollution spreads easily through underground water systems
• Water management becomes tricky due to disappearing rivers and aquifers
Yet, karst regions are also rich in:
• Tourism: Caves and limestone towers attract adventurers
• Agriculture: Poljes are fertile lands ideal for cultivation
• Culture: Many ancient civilizations built temples and homes in caves
For instance, India’s Ellora Caves—carved into basalt rock influenced by karst mechanisms—
are not just geological marvels but spiritual and artistic treasures.
Why Karst Matters in Geography
Understanding karst helps us:
• Predict geological hazards like sinkholes and land subsidence
• Manage groundwater resources and aquifers
• Preserve cave ecosystems rich in unique biodiversity
• Study climate history recorded in cave deposits
Karst landscapes are more than just scenic—they’re environmental laboratories that store
clues about Earth’s evolution.
Final Reflection
Karst topography is nature’s quiet artist—carving deep and mysterious shapes where few
can see. It doesn’t roar like a volcano or sweep like a glacier. It whispers, drips, dissolves—
and in doing so, builds breathtaking forms over thousands of years.
Whether it’s the haunting beauty of a cave echoing with drops of water or a field that once
swallowed a river whole, karst landscapes invite us to think beneath the surface—to dig
deeper into how water and rock dance together through time.
“This paper has been carefully prepared for educational purposes. If you notice any mistakes or
have suggestions, feel free to share your feedback.”
